In some embodiments, the microbial pathogen is a bacterium, mycobacterium, fungus, virus, parasite, or prion. In some embodiments, the antigen is from a microbial pathogen. In some embodiments, the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonists enhance both innate and adaptive immune response. In some embodiments, using Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonists as vaccine adjuvants enable effective immunization in vulnerable populations (e.g., neonates, the elderly, or immunocompromised individuals). Adjuvants can enhance, prolong, and modulate immune responses to vaccinal antigens to maximize protective immunity. In some embodiments, the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonists are used as adjuvants in compositions including a vaccine for a disease, e.g., proliferative disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, infectious disease, or chronic disease, in a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonists are used alone as immune-enhancing agents. Therapeutic and/or prophylactic use of the TLR2 agonist (e.g., thiophene compound) are described. Provided herein are Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) agonists for use in enhancing human immune responses.
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